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Gliese 581 c
=Gliese 581 c= ' Gliese 581 c /ˈɡliːzə/ or Gl 581 c is a planet orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 581. It is the second planet discovered in the system and the third in order from the star. With a mass at least 5.5 times that of the Earth, it is classified as a super-Earth (a category of planets from 5 to 10 Earth masses). Gliese 581 c gained interest from astronomers because it was reported to be the first potentially Earth-like planet in thehabitable zone of its star, with a temperature right for liquid water on its surface, and by extension, potentially capable of supporting extremophile forms of Earth-like life. However, further research casts doubt upon the planet's habitability. It istidally locked (always faces the parent star with the same face) so if life had a chance to emerge, the best hope of survival would be "the twilight zone." In astronomical terms, the Gliese 581 system is relatively close to Earth, at 20.37 light-years (192 trillion km or 119 trillion miles) in the direction of the constellation of Libra. This distance, along with the declination and right ascension coordinates, give its exact location in our galaxy. Discoveryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=1 edit The team released a paper of their findings dated April 27, 2007, published in the July 2007 journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.[8] At the time of discovery, it was reported to be the first potentially Earth-like planet in the habitable zone of its star[1][9] and the smallest known extrasolar planet around a main-sequence star but on April 21, 2009, another planet orbiting Gliese 581, Gliese 581 e, with an approximate mass of 1.9 Earth masses, was announced. In the paper, they also announced the discovery of another planet in the system, Gliese 581 d, with a minimum mass of 7.7 Earth masses and a semi-major axisof 0.25 astronomical units.[7] Physical characteristicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=2 edit Masshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=3 edit The existence of Gliese 581 c and its mass have been measured by the radial velocity method of detecting extrasolar planets. The mass of a planet is calculated by the small periodic movements around a common centre of mass between[clarification needed] the host star Gliese 581 and its planets. When all six planets are fitted with a Keplerian solution, the minimum mass of the planet is determined to be 5.5 Earth masses.[7] The radial velocity method cannot by itself determine the true mass, but it cannot be very much larger than this or the system would be dynamically unstable.[8] Dynamical simulations of the Gliese 581 system which assume the orbits of the planets are coplanar indicate that the planets cannot exceed approximately 1.6 to 2 times their minimum masses or the planetary system would be unstable (this is primarily due to the interaction between planets e and b). For Gliese 581 c, the upper bound is 10.4 Earth masses.[10] Radiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=4 edit Since Gliese 581 c has not been detected directly, there are no measurements of its radius. Furthermore, the radial velocity method used to detect it only puts a lower limit on the planet's mass, which means theoretical models of planetary radius and structure can only be of limited use. However, assuming a random orientation of the planet's orbit, the true mass is likely to be close to the measured minimum mass. Assuming that the true mass is the minimum mass, the radius may be calculated using various models. For example, if Gliese 581 c is a rocky planet with a large iron core, it should have a radius approximately 50% larger than that of Earth, according to Udry's team.[8][11] Gravity on such a planet's surface would be approximately 2.24 times as strong as on Earth. However, if Gliese 581 c is an icy and/or watery planet, its radius would be less than 2 times that of Earth, even with a very large outer hydrosphere, according to density models compiled by Diana Valencia and her team for Gliese 876 d.[12] Gravity on the surface of such an icy and/or watery planet would be at least 1.25 times as strong as on Earth. They claim the real value of the radius may be anything between the two extremes calculated by density models outlined above.[13] Other scientists' views differ. Sara Seager at MIT has speculated that Gliese 581 c and other five-Earth-mass planets could be:[14] *"rock giants" mostly of silicate. *"cannonball" planets of solid iron. *"gas dwarfs" mostly of helium and hydrogen. *carbon-rich "diamond worlds" *purely hot "ice VII worlds". *purely "carbon monoxide worlds". If the planet transits the star as seen from our direction, the radius should be measurable, albeit with some uncertainty. Unfortunately, measurements made with the Canadian-built MOST space telescope indicate that transits do not occur.[15] The new research suggests that the rocky centres of super-Earths are unlikely to evolve into terrestrial rocky planets like the inner planets of our Solar System because they appear to hold on to their large atmospheres. Rather than evolving to a planet composed mainly of rock with a thin atmosphere, the small rocky core remains engulfed by its large hydrogen-rich envelope.[16][17] Orbithttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=5 edit https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GJ581orbits.svgThe orbits of the Gliese 581 planetary system, as per the 2009 analysis excluding planets g and f. In the picture, Gliese 581 c is the third planet from the star. Gliese 581 c has an orbital period ("year") of 13 Earth days[2] and its orbital radius is only about 7% that of the Earth, about 11 million km,[18] while the Earth is 150 million kilometres from the Sun.[19] Since the host star is smaller and colder than the Sun—and thus less luminous—this distance places the planet on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around the star according to Udry's team.[8][11]Note that in astrophysics, the "habitable zone" is defined as the range of distances from the star at which a planet could support liquid water on its surface: it should not be taken to mean that the planet's environment would be suitable for humans, a situation which requires a more restrictive range of parameters. A typical radius for an M0 star of Gliese 581's age and metallicity is 0.00128 AU,[20]against the sun's 0.00465 AU. This proximity means that the primary star should appear 3.75 times wider and 14 times larger in area for an observer on the planet's surface looking at the sky than the Sun appears to be from Earth's surface. Tidal lockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=6 edit Because of its small separation from Gliese 581, the planet has been generally considered to always have one hemisphere facing the star (only day), and the other always facing away (only night), or in other words being tidally locked.[21][22] The most recent orbital fit to the system, taking stellar activity into account indicates a circular orbit,[7] but older fits use an eccentricity between 0.10 and 0.22. If the orbit of the planet were eccentric, it would undergo violent tidal flexing.[23] Because tidal forces are stronger when the planet is close to the star, eccentric planets are expected to have a rotation period which is shorter than its orbital period, also called pseudo-synchronization.[24] An example of this effect is seen in Mercury, which is tidally locked in a 3:2 resonance, completing three rotations every two orbits. In any case, even in the case of 1:1 tidal lock, the planet would undergo libration and the terminator would be alternatively lit and darkened during libration.[25] Models of the evolution of the planet's orbit over time suggest that heating resulting from this tidal locking may play a major role in the planet's geology. Models proposed by scientists predict that tidal heating could yield a surface heat flux about three times greater than the Jupiter's moon Io's, which could result in major geological activity such as volcanoes and plate tectonics.[26] Habitability and climatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=7 edit The study of Gliese 581 c by the von Bloh et al. team has been quoted as concluding "The super-Earth Gl 581c is clearly outside the habitable zone, since it is too close to the star."[27] The study by Selsis et al. claims even "a planet in the habitable zone is not necessarily habitable" itself, and this planet "is outside what can be considered the conservative habitable zone" of the parent star, and further that if there was any water there then it was lost when the red dwarf was a strong X-ray and EUV emitter, it could have surface temperatures ranging from 700 K to 1000 K (430 to 730 °C), like Venus today.[28] Temperature speculations by other scientists were based on the temperature of (and heat from) the parent star Gliese 581 and have been calculated without factoring in the margin of error (96 °C/K) for the star's temperature of 3432 K to 3528 K, which leads to a large irradiance range for the planet, even before eccentricity is considered.[29] Effective temperatureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=8 edit Using the measured stellar luminosity of Gliese 581 of 0.013 times that of our Sun, it is possible to calculate Gliese 581 c's effective temperature a.k.a. black body temperature. (note: this probably differs from its surface temperature). According to Udry's team, the effective temperature for Gliese 581 c, assuming an albedo (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be −3 °C (27 °F), and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be 40 °C (104 °F),[2][8] a range of temperatures which overlaps with the range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of 34.25 °C (307.40 K; 93.65 °F), but a surface temperature of 463.85 °C (737.00 K; 866.93 °F) (mainly due to a 96.5% carbon dioxide atmosphere), a difference of about 430 °C (770 °F).[30] Studies of the habitability (i.e. liquid water for extremophile forms of life)[31] conclude that Gliese 581 c is likely to suffer from a runaway greenhouse effect similar to that found on Venus, as such, is highly unlikely to be habitable. Nevertheless, this runaway greenhouse effect could be prevented by the presence of sufficient reflective cloud cover on the planet's day side.[32] Alternatively, if the surface were covered in ice, it would have a highalbedo (reflectivity), and thus could reflect enough of the incident sunlight back into space to render the planet too cold for habitability, although this situation is expected to be very unstable except for very high albedos greater than about 0.95 (i.e. ice): release of carbon dioxide by volcanic activity or of water vapor due to heating at the substellar point would trigger a runaway greenhouse effect.[33] Liquid waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=9 edit Gliese 581 c is likely to lie outside the habitable zone.[27][34] No direct evidence has been found for water to be present, and it is probably not present in the liquid state. Techniques like the one used to measure the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b may in the future be used to determine the presence of water in the form of vapor in the planet'satmosphere, but only in the rare case of a planet with an orbit aligned so as to transit its star, which Gliese 581 c is not known to do.[citation needed] Tidally-locked modelshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=10 edit Theoretical models predict that volatile compounds such as water and carbon dioxide, if present, might evaporate in the scorching heat of the sunward side, migrate to the cooler night side, and condense to form ice caps. Over time, the entire atmosphere might freeze into ice caps on the night side of the planet. However, it remains unknown if water and/or carbon dioxide are even present on the surface of Gliese 581c. Alternatively, an atmosphere large enough to be stable would circulate the heat more evenly, allowing for a wider habitable area on the surface.[35] For example, although Venus has a small axial inclination, very little sunlight reaches the surface at the poles. A slow rotation rate approximately 117 times slower than Earth's produces prolonged days and nights. Despite the uneven distribution of sunlight cast on Venus at any given time, polar areas and the night side of Venus are kept almost as hot as on the day side by globally circulating winds.[36] See alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=11 edit *A Message From Earth *COROT-7b *Habitable zone (Goldilocks phenomenon) *Interstellar travel *Planetary habitability Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=12 edit #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-space.com_1-0 Jump up to:'''''a] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-space.com_1-1 b''] Than, Ker (2007-04-24). "Major Discovery: New Planet Could Harbor Water and Life". space.com. 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Bibcode:2005A&A...443L..15B.doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500193. #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-epe_5-0 Jump up to:a''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-epe_5-1 ''b] "Star: Gliese 581". Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia. Mass 0.31 MSun, Age 8+3 −1Gyr #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-apj653_6-0 Jump up to:a''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-apj653_6-1 ''b] Bean, J. L; Benedict, G. F.; Endl, M. (2006). "Metallicities of M Dwarf Planet Hosts from Spectral Synthesis". Astrophysical Journal Letters 653 (1): L65–L68. arXiv:astro-ph/0611060. Bibcode:2006ApJ...653L..65B. doi:10.1086/510527. #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-0 Jump up to:a''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-1 ''b] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-2 c''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-3 ''d] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-4 e''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-5 ''f] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-6 g''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-7 ''h] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-robertson2014_7-8 i''] Robertson, Paul; Mahadevan, Suvrath; Endl, Michael; Roy, Arpita (3 July 2014). "Stellar activity masquerading as planets in the habitable zone of the M dwarf Gliese 581". Science '''345: 440–444. arXiv:1407.1049. Bibcode:2014Sci...345..440R.doi:10.1126/science.1253253. #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-udry_8-0 Jump up to:'''''a] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-udry_8-1 b''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-udry_8-2 ''c] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-udry_8-3 d''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-udry_8-4 ''e] Udry; et al. (2007). "The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets, XI. Super-Earths (5 and 8 M''⊕) in a 3-planet system". ''Astronomy and Astrophysics 469 (3): L43–L47. arXiv:0704.3841. Bibcode:2007A&A...469L..43U. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077612. #'Jump up^' Than, Ker (2007-02-24). "Planet Hunters Edge Closer to Their Holy Grail". space.com. Retrieved 2007-04-29. #'Jump up^' Mayor, M.; Bonfils, X.; Forveille, T.; Delfosse, X.; Udry, S.; Bertaux, J. -L.; Beust, H.; Bouchy, F.; Lovis, C.; Pepe, F.; Perrier, C.; Queloz, D.; Santos, N. C. (2009). "The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics 507 (1): 487–494. arXiv:0906.2780. Bibcode:2009A&A...507..487M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912172. #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-ESOAstronomy_11-0 Jump up to:a''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-ESOAstronomy_11-1 ''b] "Astronomers Find First Earth-like Planet in Habitable Zone". ESO. Retrieved2007-05-10. #'Jump up^' Valencia; Sasselov, Dimitar D.; O'Connell, Richard J. (2006). "Radius and Structure Models of the First Super-Earth Planet". The Astrophysical Journal 656 (1): 545–551.arXiv:astro-ph/0610122. Bibcode:2007ApJ...656..545V. doi:10.1086/509800. #'Jump up^' Valencia, D.; Sasselov, Dimitar D.; O’Connell, Richard J. (2007). "Detailed Models of Super-Earths: How Well Can We Infer Bulk Properties?". The Astrophysical Journal 665(2): 1413–1420. arXiv:0704.3454. Bibcode:2007ApJ...665.1413V.doi:10.1086/519554. #'Jump up^' Seager (2008). "Alien Earths from A to Z". Sky & Telescope. ISSN. 0037-6604 (January): 22–25. #'Jump up^' "Boring Star May Mean Livelier Planet". Spaceref.com. Retrieved 2008-09-15. #'Jump up^' Black, Charles. "Super-Earths are more like mini-Neptunes". #'Jump up^' Lammer, Helmut. "Probing the blow-off criteria of hydrogen-rich ‘super-Earths’". Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 14 March 2013. #'Jump up^' Overbye, Dennis (2007-04-25). "20 light years away, the most Earthlike planet yet". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2007-05-10. #'Jump up^' "Earth Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2015-12-21. #'Jump up^' Girardi L.; Bressan A.; Bertelli G.; Chiosi C. (2000). "Evolutionary tracks and isochrones for low- and intermediate-mass stars: From 0.15 to 7 M''☉, and from Z=0.0004 to 0.03".''Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. 141 (3): 371–383. arXiv:astro-ph/9910164.Bibcode:2000A&AS..141..371G. doi:10.1051/aas:2000126. #'Jump up^' Vergano, Dan (2007-04-25). "Out of our world: Earthlike planet". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-05-10. #'Jump up^' Selsis 2.4.1 "becomes tidally locked in less than 1 Gyr. " #'Jump up^' Beust, H.; et al. (2008). "Dynamical evolution of the Gliese 581 planetary system".Astronomy and Astrophysics 479 (1): 277–282. arXiv:0712.1907.Bibcode:2008A&A...479..277B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078794. #'Jump up^' Hut, P. (1981). "Tidal Evolution in Close Binary Systems". Astronomy and Astrophysics 99(1): 126–140. Bibcode:1981A&A....99..126H. #'Jump up^' Perlman, David (2007-04-24). "New planet found: It might hold life". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2007-04-24. #'Jump up^' Jackson, Brian; Richard Greenberg; Rory Barnes (2008). "Tidal Heating of Extra-Solar Planets". ApJ 681 (2): 1631–1638. arXiv:0803.0026. Bibcode:2008ApJ...681.1631J.doi:10.1086/587641. #^ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-blo07_27-0 Jump up to:a''] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese_581_c#cite_ref-blo07_27-1 ''b] von Bloh; et al. (2007). "The Habitability of Super-Earths in Gliese 581". Astronomy and Astrophysics 476 (3): 1365–1371. arXiv:0705.3758.Bibcode:2007A&A...476.1365V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077939. #'Jump up^' Selsis; Kasting, J. F.; Levrard, B.; Paillet, J.; Ribas, I.; Delfosse, X. (2007). "Habitable planets around the star Gl 581?". Astronomy and Astrophysics ''476 (3): 1373–1387.arXiv:0710.5294. Bibcode:2007A&A...476.1373S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078091.'' #'Jump up^' Bean, J. L.; Benedict, G. F.; Endl, M. (2006). "Metallicities of M Dwarf Planet Hosts from Spectral Synthesis". The Astrophysical Journal 653 (1): L65–L68. arXiv:astro-ph/0611060. Bibcode:2006ApJ...653L..65B. doi:10.1086/510527. #'Jump up^' "Venus Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2008-09-20. #'Jump up^' Selsis 5. "Gl 581c is very unlikely to be habitable" #'Jump up^' Selsis 3.1 "would be habitable only if clouds with the highest reflectivity covered most of the daytime hemisphere. " #'Jump up^' Selsis 3.1.2 #'Jump up^' Selsis Abstract, 3. Figure 4. #'Jump up^' Alpert, Mark (2005-11-07). "Red Star Rising". Scientific American. Retrieved2007-04-25. #'Jump up^' Ralph D Lorenz; Jonathan I Lunine; Paul G Withers; Christopher P. McKay (2001)."Titan, Mars and Earth: Entropy Production by Latitudinal Heat Transport" (PDF). Ames Research Center, University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. Retrieved2007-08-21. Further readinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=13 edit News media reportshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=14 edit *Dennis Overbye (June 12, 2007). "A Planet Is Too Hot for Life, but Another May Be Just Right". New York Times. Retrieved2009-07-11. *"Astronomers Find First Earth-like Planet in Habitable Zone". European Southern Observatory. 2007-04-25. Retrieved 2008-06-20. *"New 'super-Earth' found in space". BBC News. 2007-04-25. Retrieved 2008-06-20. *Than, Ker (2007-04-24). "Major Discovery: New Planet Could Harbor Water and Life". SPACE.com. Retrieved 2008-06-20. *Hazel Muir (April 25, 2007). "'Goldilocks' planet may be just right for life". NewScientistSpace. *"Astronomers find first habitable Earth-like planet". Scientificblogging.com. April 24, 2007. *"Found 20 light years away:the new Earth". Daily Mail. April 26, 2007. *Ian Sample (April 24, 2007). "'Second Earth' may mean we're not alone". The Hindu. *J. R. Minkle (April 24, 2007). "All Wet? Astronomers Claim Discovery of Earth-like Planet.". Scientific American. *"Distant planet judged possibly habitable". World Science. April 23, 2007. *ANI (April 23, 2007). "First habitable Earth like planet outside Solar System discovered". DailyIndia.com. Non-news mediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=15 edit *"Artist conceptions of extrasolar planet Gliese 581 c". Cosmographica. Retrieved 2008-06-20. *"The Neighbor: Gliese 581c". The Geochemical Society. Retrieved 2007-12-06. *"Red, Willing, and Able: 2001 New Scientist article on types of planets likely to be around red dwarf stars". KenCroswell.com. Retrieved 2008-06-20. *"Sunrise from the Surface of Gliese 581c". NASA. Astronomy Picture of the Day. 2007-05-02. Retrieved 2008-06-20. External linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gliese_581_c&action=edit&section=16 edit *Gliese 581 - The "Red Dwarf" and implications for its "earthlike" planet Gliese 581c